Picrotoxin
Explore a selection of our essential drug information below, or:
Identification
- Generic Name
- Picrotoxin
- DrugBank Accession Number
- DB00466
- Background
A noncompetitive antagonist at GABA-A receptors and thus a convulsant. Picrotoxin blocks the gamma-aminobutyric acid-activated chloride ionophore. Although it is most often used as a research tool, it has been used as a CNS stimulant and an antidote in poisoning by CNS depressants, especially the barbiturates. [PubChem]
- Type
- Small Molecule
- Groups
- Experimental
- Structure
- Weight
- Average: 602.5832
Monoisotopic: 602.199941174 - Chemical Formula
- C30H34O13
- Synonyms
- cocculin
Pharmacology
- Indication
Used internally for relieving respiratory distress. Also for use as an antidote in poisoning by CNS depressants, especially barbiturates.
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- Pharmacodynamics
Picrotoxin is a toxin obtained from the seeds of the shrub Anamirta cocculus. It is used as a central nervous system stimulant, antidote, convulsant, and GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) antagonist. It is a noncompetitive antagonist at GABAA receptors and thus a convulsant. Picrotoxin blocks the GABAActivated chloride ionophore. Although it is most often used as a research tool, it has been used as a CNS stimulant and an antidote in poisoning by CNS depressants, especially barbiturates.
- Mechanism of action
Picrotoxin antagonizes the GABAA receptor channel directly, which is a ligand-gated ion channel concerned chiefly with the passing of chloride ions across the cell membrane. Therefore picrotoxin prevents Cl- channel permeability and thus promtes an inhibitory influence on the target neuron. Picrotoxin reduces conductance through the channel by reducing not only the opening frequency but also the mean open time. Picrotoxin also antagonizes GABAC receptors (also called GABAA-rho receptors) but the result of this action is not known. The GABAC receptor is also linked to chloride channels, with distinct physiological and pharmacological properties. In contrast to the fast and transient responses elicited from GABAA receptors, GABAC receptors mediate slow and sustained responses.
Target Actions Organism AGamma-aminobutyric acid receptor subunit rho-1 antagonistHumans AGamma-aminobutyric acid receptor subunit alpha-1 antagonistHumans UGlycine receptor subunit alpha-2 antagonistHumans UGlycine receptor subunit alpha-3 antagonistHumans UGlycine receptor subunit alpha-1 antagonistHumans - Absorption
Not Available
- Volume of distribution
Not Available
- Protein binding
Not Available
- Metabolism
- Not Available
- Route of elimination
Not Available
- Half-life
Not Available
- Clearance
Not Available
- Adverse Effects
- Improve decision support & research outcomesWith structured adverse effects data, including: blackbox warnings, adverse reactions, warning & precautions, & incidence rates. View sample adverse effects data in our new Data Library!Improve decision support & research outcomes with our structured adverse effects data.
- Toxicity
Oral, mouse: LD50 = 15 mg/kg. In large doses it is a powerful poison, causing unconsciousness, delirium, convulsions, gastro-enteritis and stimulation of the respiratory centre followed by paralysis, from which death sometimes results.
- Pathways
- Not Available
- Pharmacogenomic Effects/ADRs
- Not Available
Interactions
- Drug Interactions
- This information should not be interpreted without the help of a healthcare provider. If you believe you are experiencing an interaction, contact a healthcare provider immediately. The absence of an interaction does not necessarily mean no interactions exist.Not Available
- Food Interactions
- Not Available
Categories
- Drug Categories
- Antidotes
- Biological Factors
- Biological Products
- Central Nervous System Agents
- Central Nervous System Stimulants
- Complex Mixtures
- Compounds used in a research, industrial, or household setting
- Convulsants
- Cyclohexanes
- Cycloparaffins
- GABA Agents
- GABA Antagonists
- GABA-A Receptor Antagonists
- Lactones
- Neurotransmitter Agents
- Pharmaceutical Preparations
- Plant Extracts
- Plant Preparations
- Protective Agents
- Sesquiterpenes
- Stimulants
- Terpenes
- Toxins, Biological
- Chemical TaxonomyProvided by Classyfire
- Description
- This compound belongs to the class of organic compounds known as furopyrans. These are organic polycyclic compounds containing a furan ring fused to a pyran ring. Furan is a five-membered aromatic ring with four carbon atoms and one oxygen atom. Pyran a six-membered heterocyclic, non-aromatic ring, made up of five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom and containing two double bonds.
- Kingdom
- Organic compounds
- Super Class
- Organoheterocyclic compounds
- Class
- Furopyrans
- Sub Class
- Not Available
- Direct Parent
- Furopyrans
- Alternative Parents
- Oxepanes / Dicarboxylic acids and derivatives / Gamma butyrolactones / Oxanes / Pyrans / Furans / Tetrahydrofurans / Tertiary alcohols / Carboxylic acid esters / Cyclic alcohols and derivatives show 6 more
- Substituents
- Alcohol / Aliphatic heteropolycyclic compound / Caprolactone / Carbonyl group / Carboxylic acid derivative / Carboxylic acid ester / Cyclic alcohol / Dialkyl ether / Dicarboxylic acid or derivatives / Ether show 15 more
- Molecular Framework
- Not Available
- External Descriptors
- Not Available
- Affected organisms
- Humans and other mammals
Chemical Identifiers
- UNII
- ZLT174DL7U
- CAS number
- 124-87-8
- InChI Key
- VJKUPQSHOVKBCO-ZTYBEOBUSA-N
- InChI
- InChI=1S/C15H18O7.C15H16O6/c1-12(2,18)6-7-10(16)20-8(6)9-13(3)14(7,19)4-5-15(13,22-5)11(17)21-9;1-5(2)7-8-11(16)19-9(7)10-13(3)14(8,18)4-6-15(13,21-6)12(17)20-10/h5-9,18-19H,4H2,1-3H3;6-10,18H,1,4H2,2-3H3/t5-,6+,7?,8?,9-,13-,14-,15+;6?,7-,8?,9?,10+,13+,14+,15-/m10/s1
- IUPAC Name
- (1R,3R,5S,8S,13R,14S)-1-hydroxy-14-(2-hydroxypropan-2-yl)-13-methyl-4,7,10-trioxapentacyclo[6.4.1.1^{9,12}.0^{3,5}.0^{5,13}]tetradecane-6,11-dione; (1R,5S,8S,13R,14R)-1-hydroxy-13-methyl-14-(prop-1-en-2-yl)-4,7,10-trioxapentacyclo[6.4.1.1^{9,12}.0^{3,5}.0^{5,13}]tetradecane-6,11-dione
- SMILES
- [H][C@@]12OC(=O)[C@@]34OC3C[C@@](O)(C3[C@@H](C1OC3=O)C(C)=C)[C@@]24C.[H][C@@]12C[C@@]3(O)C4[C@@H](C(OC4=O)[C@@]4([H])OC(=O)[C@]1(O2)[C@@]34C)C(C)(C)O
References
- General References
- External Links
- Human Metabolome Database
- HMDB0014609
- PubChem Compound
- 31304
- PubChem Substance
- 46506796
- ChemSpider
- 29044
- ChEMBL
- CHEMBL1908342
- Therapeutic Targets Database
- DAP000676
- PharmGKB
- PA164777007
- Guide to Pharmacology
- GtP Drug Page
- Wikipedia
- Picrotoxin
- MSDS
- Download (75.2 KB)
Clinical Trials
- Clinical Trials
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Pharmacoeconomics
- Manufacturers
- Not Available
- Packagers
- Not Available
- Dosage Forms
- Not Available
- Prices
- Not Available
- Patents
- Not Available
Properties
- State
- Solid
- Experimental Properties
Property Value Source melting point (°C) 203.5 °C PhysProp water solubility 4100 mg/L YALKOWSKY,SH & DANNENFELSER,RM (1992) logP -2.229 Not Available - Predicted Properties
Property Value Source Water Solubility 24.5 mg/mL ALOGPS logP 0.09 ALOGPS logP -1.1 Chemaxon logS -1.1 ALOGPS pKa (Strongest Acidic) 13.6 Chemaxon pKa (Strongest Basic) -2.8 Chemaxon Physiological Charge 0 Chemaxon Hydrogen Acceptor Count 5 Chemaxon Hydrogen Donor Count 2 Chemaxon Polar Surface Area 105.59 Å2 Chemaxon Rotatable Bond Count 2 Chemaxon Refractivity 68.29 m3·mol-1 Chemaxon Polarizability 28.52 Å3 Chemaxon Number of Rings 10 Chemaxon Bioavailability 1 Chemaxon Rule of Five No Chemaxon Ghose Filter No Chemaxon Veber's Rule No Chemaxon MDDR-like Rule No Chemaxon - Predicted ADMET Features
Property Value Probability Human Intestinal Absorption + 0.8434 Blood Brain Barrier + 0.5 Caco-2 permeable - 0.6151 P-glycoprotein substrate Substrate 0.794 P-glycoprotein inhibitor I Inhibitor 0.7418 P-glycoprotein inhibitor II Non-inhibitor 0.9201 Renal organic cation transporter Non-inhibitor 0.8832 CYP450 2C9 substrate Non-substrate 0.8446 CYP450 2D6 substrate Non-substrate 0.866 CYP450 3A4 substrate Substrate 0.6596 CYP450 1A2 substrate Non-inhibitor 0.8981 CYP450 2C9 inhibitor Non-inhibitor 0.9071 CYP450 2D6 inhibitor Non-inhibitor 0.9307 CYP450 2C19 inhibitor Non-inhibitor 0.8809 CYP450 3A4 inhibitor Non-inhibitor 0.5167 CYP450 inhibitory promiscuity Low CYP Inhibitory Promiscuity 0.929 Ames test AMES toxic 0.6089 Carcinogenicity Non-carcinogens 0.9354 Biodegradation Not ready biodegradable 1.0 Rat acute toxicity 3.2615 LD50, mol/kg Not applicable hERG inhibition (predictor I) Weak inhibitor 0.9951 hERG inhibition (predictor II) Non-inhibitor 0.9013
Spectra
- Mass Spec (NIST)
- Not Available
- Spectra
Spectrum Spectrum Type Splash Key Mass Spectrum (Electron Ionization) MS splash10-0a4m-9400000000-4265da630cb3536f0c8d - Chromatographic Properties
Collision Cross Sections (CCS)
Adduct CCS Value (Å2) Source type Source [M-H]- 225.05061 predictedDeepCCS 1.0 (2019) [M+H]+ 226.7743 predictedDeepCCS 1.0 (2019) [M+Na]+ 233.07108 predictedDeepCCS 1.0 (2019)
Targets
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Antagonist
- General Function
- Rho subunit of the pentameric ligand-gated chloride channels responsible for mediating the effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain (PubMed:37659407). Rho-containing GABA-gated chloride channels are a subclass of GABA(A) receptors (GABAARs) entirely composed of rho subunits, where GABA molecules bind at the rho intersubunit interfaces (PubMed:37659407). When activated by GABA, rho-GABAARs selectively allow the flow of chloride anions across the cell membrane down their electrochemical gradient (PubMed:37659407). Rho-1 subunits are primarily expressed in retina where rho-1-containing GABAARs may play a role in retinal neurotransmission (PubMed:1849271). Rho-1 GABAARs are also involved in neuronal tonic (extrasynaptic) and phasic (synaptic) transmission in the Purkinje neurons of the cerebellum (By similarity). Rho-1 GABAARs may also contribute to the regulation of glial development in the cerebellum by controlling extrasynaptic transmission (By similarity)
- Specific Function
- GABA-A receptor activity
- Gene Name
- GABRR1
- Uniprot ID
- P24046
- Uniprot Name
- Gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor subunit rho-1
- Molecular Weight
- 55882.91 Da
References
- Overington JP, Al-Lazikani B, Hopkins AL: How many drug targets are there? Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2006 Dec;5(12):993-6. [Article]
- Imming P, Sinning C, Meyer A: Drugs, their targets and the nature and number of drug targets. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2006 Oct;5(10):821-34. [Article]
- Law RJ, Lightstone FC: Gaba receptor insecticide non-competitive antagonists may bind at allosteric modulator sites. Int J Neurosci. 2008 May;118(5):705-34. doi: 10.1080/00207450701750216. [Article]
- Richter D, Luhmann HJ, Kilb W: Intrinsic activation of GABA(A) receptors suppresses epileptiform activity in the cerebral cortex of immature mice. Epilepsia. 2010 Aug;51(8):1483-92. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2010.02591.x. Epub 2010 May 14. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Yes
- Actions
- Antagonist
- General Function
- Alpha subunit of the heteropentameric ligand-gated chloride channel gated by Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain (PubMed:23909897, PubMed:25489750, PubMed:29950725, PubMed:30602789). GABA-gated chloride channels, also named GABA(A) receptors (GABAAR), consist of five subunits arranged around a central pore and contain GABA active binding site(s) located at the alpha and beta subunit interface(s) (PubMed:29950725, PubMed:30602789). When activated by GABA, GABAARs selectively allow the flow of chloride anions across the cell membrane down their electrochemical gradient (PubMed:23909897, PubMed:29950725, PubMed:30602789). Alpha-1/GABRA1-containing GABAARs are largely synaptic (By similarity). Chloride influx into the postsynaptic neuron following GABAAR opening decreases the neuron ability to generate a new action potential, thereby reducing nerve transmission (By similarity). GABAARs containing alpha-1 and beta-2 or -3 subunits exhibit synaptogenic activity; the gamma-2 subunit being necessary but not sufficient to induce rapid synaptic contacts formation (PubMed:23909897, PubMed:25489750). GABAARs function also as histamine receptor where histamine binds at the interface of two neighboring beta subunits and potentiates GABA response (By similarity). GABAARs containing alpha, beta and epsilon subunits also permit spontaneous chloride channel activity while preserving the structural information required for GABA-gated openings (By similarity). Alpha-1-mediated plasticity in the orbitofrontal cortex regulates context-dependent action selection (By similarity). Together with rho subunits, may also control neuronal and glial GABAergic transmission in the cerebellum (By similarity)
- Specific Function
- GABA-A receptor activity
- Gene Name
- GABRA1
- Uniprot ID
- P14867
- Uniprot Name
- Gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor subunit alpha-1
- Molecular Weight
- 51801.395 Da
References
- Overington JP, Al-Lazikani B, Hopkins AL: How many drug targets are there? Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2006 Dec;5(12):993-6. [Article]
- Imming P, Sinning C, Meyer A: Drugs, their targets and the nature and number of drug targets. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2006 Oct;5(10):821-34. [Article]
- Law RJ, Lightstone FC: Gaba receptor insecticide non-competitive antagonists may bind at allosteric modulator sites. Int J Neurosci. 2008 May;118(5):705-34. doi: 10.1080/00207450701750216. [Article]
- Richter D, Luhmann HJ, Kilb W: Intrinsic activation of GABA(A) receptors suppresses epileptiform activity in the cerebral cortex of immature mice. Epilepsia. 2010 Aug;51(8):1483-92. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2010.02591.x. Epub 2010 May 14. [Article]
- Chen X, Ji ZL, Chen YZ: TTD: Therapeutic Target Database. Nucleic Acids Res. 2002 Jan 1;30(1):412-5. [Article]
- Zhou Y, Zhang Y, Zhao D, Yu X, Shen X, Zhou Y, Wang S, Qiu Y, Chen Y, Zhu F: TTD: Therapeutic Target Database describing target druggability information. Nucleic Acids Res. 2024 Jan 5;52(D1):D1465-D1477. doi: 10.1093/nar/gkad751. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Unknown
- Actions
- Antagonist
- General Function
- Glycine receptors are ligand-gated chloride channels. Channel opening is triggered by extracellular glycine (PubMed:15302677, PubMed:16144831, PubMed:2155780, PubMed:23895467, PubMed:25445488, PubMed:26370147, PubMed:34473954). Channel opening is also triggered by taurine and beta-alanine (PubMed:15302677). Plays a role in synaptic plasticity (By similarity). Contributes to the generation of inhibitory postsynaptic currents, and is involved in the down-regulation of neuronal excitability (PubMed:25445488). Plays a role in cellular responses to ethanol (PubMed:23895467)
- Specific Function
- extracellularly glycine-gated chloride channel activity
- Gene Name
- GLRA2
- Uniprot ID
- P23416
- Uniprot Name
- Glycine receptor subunit alpha-2
- Molecular Weight
- 52001.585 Da
References
- Yang Z, Cromer BA, Harvey RJ, Parker MW, Lynch JW: A proposed structural basis for picrotoxinin and picrotin binding in the glycine receptor pore. J Neurochem. 2007 Oct;103(2):580-9. Epub 2007 Aug 20. [Article]
- Wang DS, Buckinx R, Lecorronc H, Mangin JM, Rigo JM, Legendre P: Mechanisms for picrotoxinin and picrotin blocks of alpha2 homomeric glycine receptors. J Biol Chem. 2007 Jun 1;282(22):16016-35. Epub 2007 Apr 3. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Unknown
- Actions
- Antagonist
- General Function
- Glycine receptors are ligand-gated chloride channels. Channel opening is triggered by extracellular glycine (PubMed:26416729, PubMed:9677400). Channel characteristics depend on the subunit composition; heteropentameric channels display faster channel closure (By similarity). Plays an important role in the down-regulation of neuronal excitability (By similarity). Contributes to the generation of inhibitory postsynaptic currents (By similarity). Contributes to increased pain perception in response to increased prostaglandin E2 levels (By similarity). Plays a role in cellular responses to ethanol (By similarity)
- Specific Function
- extracellularly glycine-gated chloride channel activity
- Gene Name
- GLRA3
- Uniprot ID
- O75311
- Uniprot Name
- Glycine receptor subunit alpha-3
- Molecular Weight
- 53799.775 Da
References
- Yang Z, Cromer BA, Harvey RJ, Parker MW, Lynch JW: A proposed structural basis for picrotoxinin and picrotin binding in the glycine receptor pore. J Neurochem. 2007 Oct;103(2):580-9. Epub 2007 Aug 20. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Unknown
- Actions
- Antagonist
- General Function
- Glycine receptors are ligand-gated chloride channels (PubMed:23994010, PubMed:25730860). Channel opening is triggered by extracellular glycine (PubMed:14551753, PubMed:16144831, PubMed:2155780, PubMed:22715885, PubMed:22973015, PubMed:25973519, PubMed:7920629, PubMed:9009272). Channel opening is also triggered by taurine and beta-alanine (PubMed:16144831, PubMed:9009272). Channel characteristics depend on the subunit composition; heteropentameric channels are activated by lower glycine levels and display faster desensitization (PubMed:14551753). Plays an important role in the down-regulation of neuronal excitability (PubMed:8298642, PubMed:9009272). Contributes to the generation of inhibitory postsynaptic currents (PubMed:25445488). Channel activity is potentiated by ethanol (PubMed:25973519). Potentiation of channel activity by intoxicating levels of ethanol contribute to the sedative effects of ethanol (By similarity)
- Specific Function
- extracellularly glycine-gated chloride channel activity
- Gene Name
- GLRA1
- Uniprot ID
- P23415
- Uniprot Name
- Glycine receptor subunit alpha-1
- Molecular Weight
- 52623.35 Da
References
- Jensen AA, Kristiansen U: Functional characterisation of the human alpha1 glycine receptor in a fluorescence-based membrane potential assay. Biochem Pharmacol. 2004 May 1;67(9):1789-99. [Article]
Enzymes
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Unknown
- Actions
- Inducer
- General Function
- A cytochrome P450 monooxygenase involved in the metabolism of various endogenous substrates, including fatty acids, steroid hormones and vitamins (PubMed:10681376, PubMed:11555828, PubMed:12865317, PubMed:14559847, PubMed:15041462, PubMed:15805301, PubMed:18577768, PubMed:19965576, PubMed:20972997). Mechanistically, uses molecular oxygen inserting one oxygen atom into a substrate, and reducing the second into a water molecule, with two electrons provided by NADPH via cytochrome P450 reductase (NADPH--hemoprotein reductase) (PubMed:10681376, PubMed:11555828, PubMed:12865317, PubMed:14559847, PubMed:15041462, PubMed:15805301, PubMed:18577768, PubMed:19965576, PubMed:20972997). Catalyzes the hydroxylation of carbon-hydrogen bonds. Exhibits high catalytic activity for the formation of hydroxyestrogens from estrone (E1) and 17beta-estradiol (E2), namely 2-hydroxy E1 and E2, as well as D-ring hydroxylated E1 and E2 at the C15-alpha and C16-alpha positions (PubMed:11555828, PubMed:12865317, PubMed:14559847, PubMed:15805301). Displays different regioselectivities for polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) hydroxylation (PubMed:15041462, PubMed:18577768). Catalyzes the epoxidation of double bonds of certain PUFA (PubMed:15041462, PubMed:19965576, PubMed:20972997). Converts arachidonic acid toward epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (EET) regioisomers, 8,9-, 11,12-, and 14,15-EET, that function as lipid mediators in the vascular system (PubMed:20972997). Displays an absolute stereoselectivity in the epoxidation of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) producing the 17(R),18(S) enantiomer (PubMed:15041462). May play an important role in all-trans retinoic acid biosynthesis in extrahepatic tissues. Catalyzes two successive oxidative transformation of all-trans retinol to all-trans retinal and then to the active form all-trans retinoic acid (PubMed:10681376). May also participate in eicosanoids metabolism by converting hydroperoxide species into oxo metabolites (lipoxygenase-like reaction, NADPH-independent) (PubMed:21068195)
- Specific Function
- arachidonic acid monooxygenase activity
- Gene Name
- CYP1A1
- Uniprot ID
- P04798
- Uniprot Name
- Cytochrome P450 1A1
- Molecular Weight
- 58164.815 Da
References
- Sadar MD, Ash R, Andersson TB: Picrotoxin is a CYP1A1 inducer in rainbow trout hepatocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1995 Sep 25;214(3):1060-6. [Article]
- Sadar MD, Westlind A, Blomstrand F, Andersson TB: Induction of CYP1A1 by GABA receptor ligands. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1996 Dec 4;229(1):231-7. [Article]
- Kind
- Protein
- Organism
- Humans
- Pharmacological action
- Unknown
- Actions
- Inhibitor
- General Function
- Glutamine synthetase that catalyzes the ATP-dependent conversion of glutamate and ammonia to glutamine (PubMed:16267323, PubMed:30158707, PubMed:36289327). Its role depends on tissue localization: in the brain, it regulates the levels of toxic ammonia and converts neurotoxic glutamate to harmless glutamine, whereas in the liver, it is one of the enzymes responsible for the removal of ammonia (By similarity). Essential for proliferation of fetal skin fibroblasts (PubMed:18662667). Independently of its glutamine synthetase activity, required for endothelial cell migration during vascular development: acts by regulating membrane localization and activation of the GTPase RHOJ, possibly by promoting RHOJ palmitoylation (PubMed:30158707). May act as a palmitoyltransferase for RHOJ: able to autopalmitoylate and then transfer the palmitoyl group to RHOJ (PubMed:30158707). Plays a role in ribosomal 40S subunit biogenesis (PubMed:26711351). Through the interaction with BEST2, inhibits BEST2 channel activity by affecting the gating at the aperture in the absence of intracellular L-glutamate, but sensitizes BEST2 to intracellular L-glutamate, which promotes the opening of BEST2 and thus relieves its inhibitory effect on BEST2 (PubMed:36289327)
- Specific Function
- ATP binding
- Gene Name
- GLUL
- Uniprot ID
- P15104
- Uniprot Name
- Glutamine synthetase
- Molecular Weight
- 42064.15 Da
References
- Loscher W, Frey HH: Effect of convulsant and anticonvulsant agents on level and metabolism of gamma-aminobutyric acid in mouse brain. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 1977 Feb;296(3):263-9. [Article]
Drug created at June 13, 2005 13:24 / Updated at October 29, 2024 18:01