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Thimerosal

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Identification

Generic Name
Thimerosal
DrugBank Accession Number
DB11590
Background

Thiomersal (INN), commonly known in the U.S. as thimerosal, is an organomercury compound. This compound is a well-established and widely used antiseptic and antifungal agent.

Developed in 1927, thimerosal has been and is still being used as a preservative in some cosmetics, topical pharmaceuticals, and biological drug products, which includes vaccines. There has been significant concern regarding its safety and toxicity in the last several decades. Although thimerosal is banned in several countries, it continues to be included as a preservative in some vaccines in the United States and many vaccines in the developing world 19.

Type
Small Molecule
Groups
Approved
Structure
Similar Structures
Weight
Average: 404.81
Monoisotopic: 405.992720501
Chemical Formula
C9H9HgNaO2S
Synonyms
  • [(o-carboxyphenyl)thio]ethylmercury sodium salt
  • BTL-TML-COVID
  • BTL-TML-HSV
  • BTL-TML001
  • ethyl(2-mercaptobenzoato-S)mercury sodium salt
  • ethylmercurithiosalicylate sodium
  • ethylmercurithiosalicylic acid sodium salt
  • mercurothiolate
  • o-(ethylmercurithio)benzoic acid sodium salt
  • sodium ethylmercurithiosalicylate
  • sodium merthiolate
  • Thimerosal
  • Thiomersal
  • Thiomersalate
  • Thiomersalum
  • Tiomersal
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Pharmacology

Indication

Used as preservative in some cosmetics, topical pharmaceuticals, and biological drug products, which includes vaccines 5,6,7.

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Associated Therapies
Contraindications & Blackbox Warnings
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Pharmacodynamics

Thimerosal is an organomercurial compound and derivative of thiosalicyclic acid with antibacterial and antifungal properties 6. Thimerosal, which consists of approximately 50% mercury by weight, has been one of the most widely used preservatives in vaccines. It is metabolized/degraded to ethylmercury and thiosalicylate. Ethylmercury is an organomercurial that must be carefully distinguished from methylmercury, a closely related substance that has been the focus of many studies. Methylmercury is the type of mercury found in various species of fish 22. Experimental data demonstrates that the toxicokinetics of thimerosal (ethylmercury) is vastly different from that of methyl-mercury. Thus, methyl-mercury is not a suitable reference for assessing the risk from exposure to thimerosal-derived mercury 25.

Prior to the recent initiative to reduce or eliminate thimerosal from childhood vaccines, the maximum cumulative exposure to mercury via routine childhood vaccinations during the first 6 months of life was 187.5 micrograms. In the most recently formulated vaccines, the maximum cumulative exposure during the first 6 months of life should now be less than 3 micrograms of mercury. Currently, thimerosal may still be used in the early stages of manufacturing of certain childhood vaccines, however, only a trace remains after a chemical purification process. Note that the dose above is indicated for children 1-6 months of age is applicable only in the United States, and other countries may have varying indications 21.

Mechanism of action

Although its mechanism of action is not fully understood, thimerosal inhibits sulfhydryl-containing active site of various enzymes and binds to sulfhydryl compounds, including glutathione, cysteine, and sulfhydryl groups of proteins. In addition, thimerosal activates the InsP3 calcium channel on the endoplasmic reticular membrane, thereby triggering the release of intracellular calcium resulting in a calcium-induced calcium-influx of extracellular calcium. Therefore, thimerosal may induce or inhibit various cellular functions that are dependent on the signaling of calcium 8.

Ethylmercury is metabolized to inorganic mercury more rapidly than methylmercury. This difference in metabolism may account for kidney pathology that can result from toxic quantities. Also, whereas the increase in oxidative stress and induction of apoptosis observed in vitro with large doses (405 μg/L to 101 mg/L) of thimerosal may explain its damaging neurological effects. The effects of low-dose ethylmercury are not completely understood to date. It is known, however, that the shorter half-life of ethylmercury (the metabolite of thimerosal) allows for very limited opportunities of ethylmercury derived from thimerosal in vaccines 8.

Ethylmercury is a lipophilic cation that is capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier. The octanol/water partition coefficients of methyl and ethylmercury are 1.4 to 1.8, at intracellular pH and [Cl−], therefore, both organomercury compounds will primarily exist as intracellular lipophilic cations. It has been demonstrated that lipophilic cations accumulate inside mitochondria, in a Nernstian fashion, driven by the steady state membrane potential. As the typical mitochondrial membrane potential of astrocytes and neurons is between 140–170 mV, one would expect the concentration of these organomercury compounds within mitochondria to be approximately 1000 times greater than the cytosolic concentration 23.

TargetActionsOrganism
UMethionine synthase
antagonist
Humans
UCystine/glutamate transporter
antagonist
Humans
USodium/potassium-transporting ATPase subunit gamma
antagonist
Humans
Absorption

Less than 0.01% of an ingested dose is absorbed from the GI tract (rat study) 21.

Volume of distribution

266 L in one study 12

Protein binding

95 to 99% (depending on animal species and experimental conditions) of the mercury in plasma is bound to albumin (along with other plasma proteins). As significant proportion of albumin is filtered at the glomerulus 26.

Metabolism

Ethylmercury (etHg) is derived from the metabolism of thimerosal (o-carboxyphenyl-thio-ethyl-sodium salt), which is the most widely used form of organic mercury 1.

Route of elimination

Gastrointestinal tract 9.

Half-life

A study was done to study the pharmacokinetics of Thimerosal in mice. Estimated half-lives (in days) were 8.8 for blood, 10.7 for brain, 7.8 for heart, 7.7 for liver and 45.2 for kidney.19

The the half-life of ethylmercury is 3–7 days in infants, with the half-life of intramuscular ethylmercury from thimerosal being 2.9-4.1 days.28 The half-life of ethylmercury in the blood also did not vary significant between age groups of infants, alongside the results that blood mercury levels before vaccination being similar in 2 month old and 6 month old infants suggests ethylmercury does not accumulate in the blood.4

Clearance

The high concentrations of mercury identified in stool samples suggest that ethylmercury may be eliminated through the gastrointestinal tract 9.

Adverse Effects
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Toxicity

Ld50 Oral: 75 mg/kg (mouse), 91 mg/kg (mouse) 27

Although methylmercury (meHg) is considered a hazardous substance that is to be avoided even at small levels when consumed in foods such as seafood and rice (in Asia), the World Health Organization considers small doses of thimerosal safe regardless of multiple/repetitive exposures to vaccines that are predominantly taken during pregnancy or infancy 19,20,23.

Pathways
Not Available
Pharmacogenomic Effects/ADRs
Not Available

Interactions

Drug Interactions
This information should not be interpreted without the help of a healthcare provider. If you believe you are experiencing an interaction, contact a healthcare provider immediately. The absence of an interaction does not necessarily mean no interactions exist.
DrugInteraction
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interactions in your software
LatanoprostThimerosal can cause a decrease in the absorption of Latanoprost resulting in a reduced serum concentration and potentially a decrease in efficacy.
Food Interactions
No interactions found.

Products

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Active Moieties
NameKindUNIICASInChI Key
Ethylmercurithiosalicylic acidunknown4071N4J64W148-61-8HXQVQGWHFRNKMS-UHFFFAOYSA-M
International/Other Brands
Mersol
Mixture Products
NameIngredientsDosageRouteLabellerMarketing StartMarketing EndRegionImage
T.R.U.E. Test Thin-Layer Rapid Use Patch TestThimerosal (6 ug/48h) + 2,2'-Dibenzothiazyl disulfide (20 ug/48h) + 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (61 ug/48h) + 4-(Isopropylamino)diphenylamine (10 ug/48h) + Bacitracin (486 ug/48h) + Balsam of Peru (648 ug/48h) + Benzocaine (378 ug/48h) + Benzylparaben (162 ug/48h) + Bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (32 ug/48h) + Bromothalonil (4 ug/48h) + Bronopol (203 ug/48h) + Budesonide (0.8 ug/48h) + Butylparaben (162 ug/48h) + Chlorquinaldol (77 ug/48h) + Cinchocaine hydrochloride (66 ug/48h) + Cinnamaldehyde (41 ug/48h) + Cinnamyl alcohol (63 ug/48h) + Clioquinol (77 ug/48h) + Cobalt chloride hexahydrate (4 ug/48h) + Diazolidinylurea (446 ug/48h) + Potassium dichromate (15.7 ug/48h) + Dipentamethylenethiuram disulfide (5.5 ug/48h) + Diphenylguanidine (68 ug/48h) + Disperse Blue 106 (41 ug/48h) + Disulfiram (5.5 ug/48h) + Ditiocarb zinc (68 ug/48h) + Ethyl hydroxybenzoate (162 ug/48h) + Ethylenediamine (18 ug/48h) + Eugenol (41 ug/48h) + Evernia prunastri (81 ug/48h) + Formaldehyde (146 ug/48h) + Geraniol (81 ug/48h) + Hydrocortisone butyrate (16 ug/48h) + Hydroxycitronellal (63 ug/48h) + Imidurea (486 ug/48h) + Isoeugenol (17 ug/48h) + Lanolin alcohols (810 ug/48h) + Methylchloroisothiazolinone (3 ug/48h) + Methylparaben (162 ug/48h) + Morpholinylmercaptobenzothiazole (20 ug/48h) + N,N'-diphenyl-1,4-phenylenediamine (25 ug/48h) + N-Cyclohexyl-N'-phenyl-1,4-phenylenediamine (25 ug/48h) + Neomycin sulfate (486 ug/48h) + Nickel sulfate hexahydrate (36 ug/48h) + Parthenolide (2 ug/48h) + Propylparaben (162 ug/48h) + Quaternium-15 (81 ug/48h) + Rosin (972 ug/48h) + Sodium aurotiosulfate (23 ug/48h) + Tetracaine hydrochloride (66 ug/48h) + Tetramethylthiuram monosulfide (5.5 ug/48h) + Thiohexam (20 ug/48h) + Thiram (5.5 ug/48h) + Tixocortol pivalate (2 ug/48h) + Zinc dibutyldithiocarbamate (68 ug/48h) + alpha-Amyl cinnamaldehyde (17 ug/48h) + p-Phenylenediamine (65 ug/48h) + p-tert-Butylphenol-formaldehyde resin (low molecular weight) (36 ug/48h)KitCutaneousSmartPractice Denmark ApS2012-03-01Not applicableUS flag
Welders Eye EaseThimerosal (4.07 %) + Boric acid (2.31 %) + Butacaine sulfate (.14 %) + Camphor (2 %) + Witch hazel (6.39 %)LiquidOphthalmicCanadian Custom Packaging Company1965-12-312006-03-21Canada flag

Categories

ATC Codes
D08AK06 — Thiomersal
Drug Categories
Chemical TaxonomyProvided by Classyfire
Description
This compound belongs to the class of organic compounds known as o-sulfanylbenzoic acids. These are benzoic acids which bear a sulfanyl group (R-SH) attached to the benzene ring at positions 1 and 2, respectively.
Kingdom
Organic compounds
Super Class
Benzenoids
Class
Benzene and substituted derivatives
Sub Class
Benzoic acids and derivatives
Direct Parent
O-sulfanylbenzoic acids
Alternative Parents
Benzoic acids / Benzoyl derivatives / Monocarboxylic acids and derivatives / Carboxylic acids / Transition metal alkyls / Organosulfur compounds / Organooxygen compounds / Organic salts / Organic oxides / Hydrocarbon derivatives
show 1 more
Substituents
Alkyl mercury compound / Aromatic homomonocyclic compound / Benzoic acid / Benzoyl / Carboxylic acid / Carboxylic acid derivative / Hydrocarbon derivative / Monocarboxylic acid or derivatives / O-sulfanylbenzoic acid / Organic oxide
show 8 more
Molecular Framework
Not Available
External Descriptors
alkylmercury compound (CHEBI:9546)
Affected organisms
  • Humans

Chemical Identifiers

UNII
2225PI3MOV
CAS number
54-64-8
InChI Key
RTKIYNMVFMVABJ-UHFFFAOYSA-L
InChI
InChI=1S/C7H6O2S.C2H5.Hg.Na/c8-7(9)5-3-1-2-4-6(5)10;1-2;;/h1-4,10H,(H,8,9);1H2,2H3;;/q;;2*+1/p-2
IUPAC Name
sodium [(2-carboxylatophenyl)sulfanyl](ethyl)mercury
SMILES
[Na+].CC[Hg]SC1=CC=CC=C1C([O-])=O

References

General References
  1. Dorea JG, Farina M, Rocha JB: Toxicity of ethylmercury (and Thimerosal): a comparison with methylmercury. J Appl Toxicol. 2013 Aug;33(8):700-11. doi: 10.1002/jat.2855. Epub 2013 Feb 11. [Article]
  2. Hussain S, Atkinson A, Thompson SJ, Khan AT: Accumulation of mercury and its effect on antioxidant enzymes in brain, liver, and kidneys of mice. J Environ Sci Health B. 1999 Jul;34(4):645-60. doi: 10.1080/03601239909373219. [Article]
  3. Geier DA, Sykes LK, Geier MR: A review of Thimerosal (Merthiolate) and its ethylmercury breakdown product: specific historical considerations regarding safety and effectiveness. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2007 Dec;10(8):575-96. doi: 10.1080/10937400701389875. [Article]
  4. Hurley AM, Tadrous M, Miller ES: Thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism: a review of recent epidemiologic studies. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther. 2010 Jul;15(3):173-81. [Article]
  5. Thimerosal and Vaccines [Link]
  6. Thimerosal, Pubchem [Link]
  7. Questions about Vaccines [Link]
  8. 54-64-8(Thimerosal) Product Description [Link]
  9. Thimerosal-Containing Vaccines and Autism: A Review of Recent Epidemiologic Studies [Link]
  10. Toxic Effects of Mercury on the Cardiovascular and Central Nervous Systems [Link]
  11. Thimerosal [54-64-8] [Link]
  12. Toxicokinetics of Mercury after Long-Term Repeated Exposure to Thimerosal-Containing Vaccine [Link]
  13. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51732698_Administration_of_Thimerosal_to_Infant_Rats_Increases_Overflow_of_Glutamate_and_Aspartate_in_the_Prefrontal_Cortex_Protective_Role_of_Dehydroepiandrosterone_Sulfate [Link]
  14. Thimerosal, an overview [Link]
  15. Thimerosal in Flu Vaccine [Link]
  16. Thimerosal and Animal Brains: New Data for Assessing Human Ethylmercury Risk [Link]
  17. Thimerosal: Clinical, epidemiologic and biochemical studies [Link]
  18. The Thimerosal Controversy [Link]
  19. A systematic study of the disposition and metabolism of mercury species in mice after exposure to low levels of thimerosal (ethylmercury) [Link]
  20. Toxicity of ethylmercury (and Thimerosal): a comparison with methylmercury [Link]
  21. Mercury [Link]
  22. The toxicology of Mercury [Link]
  23. The Toxicology of Mercury [Link]
  24. Sigma Aldrich Thimerosal [Link]
  25. Identification and distribution of mercury species in rat tissues following administration of Thimerosal or methylmercury [Link]
  26. Molecular Interactions with Mercury in the Kidney [Link]
  27. Material Safety Data Sheet Thimerosal MSDS [Link]
  28. World Health Organization: Thiomersal vaccines [Link]
KEGG Drug
D00864
PubChem Compound
16684434
PubChem Substance
347827997
ChemSpider
5697
BindingDB
512713
RxNav
10472
ChEBI
9546
ChEMBL
CHEMBL508338
Wikipedia
Thiomersal

Clinical Trials

Clinical Trials
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4CompletedPreventionHepatitis E1somestatusstop reasonjust information to hide
3CompletedPreventionFlu caused by Influenza4somestatusstop reasonjust information to hide
3CompletedPreventionViral Hepatitis B2somestatusstop reasonjust information to hide
2CompletedPreventionFlu caused by Influenza1somestatusstop reasonjust information to hide
2CompletedTreatmentCoronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID‑19)1somestatusstop reasonjust information to hide

Pharmacoeconomics

Manufacturers
Not Available
Packagers
Not Available
Dosage Forms
FormRouteStrength
SolutionTopical0.1 g
KitCutaneous
TinctureTopical
LiquidOphthalmic
Prices
Not Available
Patents
Not Available

Properties

State
Solid
Experimental Properties
PropertyValueSource
melting point (°C)-38.87 http://scorecard.goodguide.com/chemical-profiles/html/mercury.html
boiling point (°C)357.3https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/pollutants/mercury-environment/about/chemical-properties.html
water solubility1 g/mLhttps://www.sigmaaldrich.com/content/dam/sigma-aldrich/docs/Sigma/Product_Information_Sheet/1/t5125pis.pdf
Predicted Properties
PropertyValueSource
Water Solubility6.17 mg/mLALOGPS
logP2.58ALOGPS
logP2.35Chemaxon
logS-1.8ALOGPS
pKa (Strongest Acidic)3.62Chemaxon
Physiological Charge-1Chemaxon
Hydrogen Acceptor Count2Chemaxon
Hydrogen Donor Count0Chemaxon
Polar Surface Area40.13 Å2Chemaxon
Rotatable Bond Count4Chemaxon
Refractivity59.82 m3·mol-1Chemaxon
Polarizability20.6 Å3Chemaxon
Number of Rings1Chemaxon
Bioavailability1Chemaxon
Rule of FiveYesChemaxon
Ghose FilterYesChemaxon
Veber's RuleNoChemaxon
MDDR-like RuleNoChemaxon
Predicted ADMET Features
Not Available

Spectra

Mass Spec (NIST)
Not Available
Spectra
SpectrumSpectrum TypeSplash Key
13C NMR Spectrum1D NMRNot Applicable
Chromatographic Properties
Collision Cross Sections (CCS)
AdductCCS Value (Å2)Source typeSource
[M-H]-128.5037668
predicted
DarkChem Lite v0.1.0
[M-H]-128.5250668
predicted
DarkChem Lite v0.1.0

Targets

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Details1. Methionine synthase
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Antagonist
General Function
Catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group from methylcob(III)alamin (MeCbl) to homocysteine, yielding enzyme-bound cob(I)alamin and methionine in the cytosol (PubMed:16769880, PubMed:17288554, PubMed:27771510). MeCbl is an active form of cobalamin (vitamin B12) used as a cofactor for methionine biosynthesis. Cob(I)alamin form is regenerated to MeCbl by a transfer of a methyl group from 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (PubMed:16769880, PubMed:17288554, PubMed:27771510). The processing of cobalamin in the cytosol occurs in a multiprotein complex composed of at least MMACHC, MMADHC, MTRR (methionine synthase reductase) and MTR which may contribute to shuttle safely and efficiently cobalamin towards MTR in order to produce methionine (PubMed:16769880, PubMed:27771510)
Specific Function
cobalamin binding
Gene Name
MTR
Uniprot ID
Q99707
Uniprot Name
Methionine synthase
Molecular Weight
140525.91 Da
References
  1. Sigma Aldrich Thimerosal [Link]
Details2. Cystine/glutamate transporter
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Antagonist
General Function
Heterodimer with SLC3A2, that functions as an antiporter by mediating the exchange of extracellular anionic L-cystine and intracellular L-glutamate across the cellular plasma membrane (PubMed:11133847, PubMed:11417227, PubMed:14722095, PubMed:15151999, PubMed:34880232, PubMed:35245456, PubMed:35352032). Provides L-cystine for the maintenance of the redox balance between extracellular L-cystine and L-cysteine and for the maintenance of the intracellular levels of glutathione that is essential for cells protection from oxidative stress (By similarity). The transport is sodium-independent, electroneutral with a stoichiometry of 1:1, and is drove by the high intracellular concentration of L-glutamate and the intracellular reduction of L-cystine (PubMed:11133847, PubMed:11417227). In addition, mediates the import of L-kynurenine leading to anti-ferroptotic signaling propagation required to maintain L-cystine and glutathione homeostasis (PubMed:35245456). Moreover, mediates N-acetyl-L-cysteine uptake into the placenta leading to subsequently down-regulation of pathways associated with oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis (PubMed:34120018). In vitro can also transport L-aspartate (PubMed:11417227). May participate in astrocyte and meningeal cell proliferation during development and can provide neuroprotection by promoting glutathione synthesis and delivery from non-neuronal cells such as astrocytes and meningeal cells to immature neurons (By similarity). Controls the production of pheomelanin pigment directly (By similarity)
Specific Function
cystine
Gene Name
SLC7A11
Uniprot ID
Q9UPY5
Uniprot Name
Cystine/glutamate transporter
Molecular Weight
55422.44 Da
References
  1. Sigma Aldrich Thimerosal [Link]
Details3. Sodium/potassium-transporting ATPase subunit gamma
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Antagonist
General Function
May be involved in forming the receptor site for cardiac glycoside binding or may modulate the transport function of the sodium ATPase
Specific Function
ATPase activator activity
Gene Name
FXYD2
Uniprot ID
P54710
Uniprot Name
Sodium/potassium-transporting ATPase subunit gamma
Molecular Weight
7283.265 Da
References
  1. Sigma Aldrich Thimerosal [Link]

Enzymes

Details1. Glutathione reductase, mitochondrial
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inducer
General Function
Maintains high levels of reduced glutathione in the cytosol
Specific Function
electron transfer activity
Gene Name
GSR
Uniprot ID
P00390
Uniprot Name
Glutathione reductase, mitochondrial
Molecular Weight
56256.565 Da
References
  1. Hussain S, Atkinson A, Thompson SJ, Khan AT: Accumulation of mercury and its effect on antioxidant enzymes in brain, liver, and kidneys of mice. J Environ Sci Health B. 1999 Jul;34(4):645-60. doi: 10.1080/03601239909373219. [Article]
Details2. Glutathione peroxidase 1
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Ligand
General Function
Catalyzes the reduction of hydroperoxides in a glutathione-dependent manner thus regulating cellular redox homeostasis (PubMed:11115402, PubMed:36608588). Can reduce small soluble hydroperoxides such as H2O2, cumene hydroperoxide and tert-butyl hydroperoxide, as well as several fatty acid-derived hydroperoxides (PubMed:11115402, PubMed:36608588). In platelets catalyzes the reduction of 12-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid, the primary product of the arachidonate 12-lipoxygenase pathway (PubMed:11115402)
Specific Function
glutathione peroxidase activity
Gene Name
GPX1
Uniprot ID
P07203
Uniprot Name
Glutathione peroxidase 1
Molecular Weight
22087.94 Da
References
  1. Hussain S, Atkinson A, Thompson SJ, Khan AT: Accumulation of mercury and its effect on antioxidant enzymes in brain, liver, and kidneys of mice. J Environ Sci Health B. 1999 Jul;34(4):645-60. doi: 10.1080/03601239909373219. [Article]
  2. Lubos E, Loscalzo J, Handy DE: Glutathione peroxidase-1 in health and disease: from molecular mechanisms to therapeutic opportunities. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2011 Oct 1;15(7):1957-97. doi: 10.1089/ars.2010.3586. Epub 2011 Apr 10. [Article]
Details3. Superoxide dismutase [Mn], mitochondrial
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
Actions
Inducer
General Function
Destroys superoxide anion radicals which are normally produced within the cells and which are toxic to biological systems
Specific Function
DNA binding
Gene Name
SOD2
Uniprot ID
P04179
Uniprot Name
Superoxide dismutase [Mn], mitochondrial
Molecular Weight
24750.015 Da
References
  1. Stephenson GA, Stowell JG, Toma PH, Pfeiffer RR, Byrn SR: Solid-state investigations of erythromycin A dihydrate: structure, NMR spectroscopy, and hygroscopicity. J Pharm Sci. 1997 Nov;86(11):1239-44. [Article]

Carriers

Details1. Albumin
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
General Function
Binds water, Ca(2+), Na(+), K(+), fatty acids, hormones, bilirubin and drugs (Probable). Its main function is the regulation of the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood (Probable). Major zinc transporter in plasma, typically binds about 80% of all plasma zinc (PubMed:19021548). Major calcium and magnesium transporter in plasma, binds approximately 45% of circulating calcium and magnesium in plasma (By similarity). Potentially has more than two calcium-binding sites and might additionally bind calcium in a non-specific manner (By similarity). The shared binding site between zinc and calcium at residue Asp-273 suggests a crosstalk between zinc and calcium transport in the blood (By similarity). The rank order of affinity is zinc > calcium > magnesium (By similarity). Binds to the bacterial siderophore enterobactin and inhibits enterobactin-mediated iron uptake of E.coli from ferric transferrin, and may thereby limit the utilization of iron and growth of enteric bacteria such as E.coli (PubMed:6234017). Does not prevent iron uptake by the bacterial siderophore aerobactin (PubMed:6234017)
Specific Function
antioxidant activity
Gene Name
ALB
Uniprot ID
P02768
Uniprot Name
Albumin
Molecular Weight
69365.94 Da
References
  1. Wu X, Liang H, O'Hara KA, Yalowich JC, Hasinoff BB: Thiol-modulated mechanisms of the cytotoxicity of thimerosal and inhibition of DNA topoisomerase II alpha. Chem Res Toxicol. 2008 Feb;21(2):483-93. doi: 10.1021/tx700341n. Epub 2008 Jan 16. [Article]

Transporters

Details1. Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-gated calcium channel ITPR1
Kind
Protein
Organism
Humans
Pharmacological action
Unknown
General Function
Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-gated calcium channel that, upon inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate binding, mediates calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (PubMed:10620513, PubMed:27108797). Undergoes conformational changes upon ligand binding, suggesting structural flexibility that allows the channel to switch from a closed state, capable of interacting with its ligands such as 1,4,5-trisphosphate and calcium, to an open state, capable of transferring calcium ions across the ER membrane (By similarity). Cytoplasmic calcium released from the ER triggers apoptosis by the activation of CAMK2 complex (By similarity). Involved in the regulation of epithelial secretion of electrolytes and fluid through the interaction with AHCYL1 (By similarity). Part of a complex composed of HSPA9, ITPR1 and VDAC1 that regulates mitochondrial calcium-dependent apoptosis by facilitating calcium transport from the ER lumen to the mitochondria intermembrane space thus providing calcium for the downstream calcium channel MCU that directly releases it into mitochondria matrix (By similarity). Regulates fertilization and egg activation by tuning the frequency and amplitude of calcium oscillations (By similarity)
Specific Function
ATP binding
Gene Name
ITPR1
Uniprot ID
Q14643
Uniprot Name
Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-gated calcium channel ITPR1
Molecular Weight
313926.375 Da

Drug created at April 29, 2016 03:00 / Updated at July 03, 2024 00:10