Aminophylline

Identification

Summary

Aminophylline is a bronchodilator consisting of theophylline that is used for the treatment of bronchospasm due to asthma, emphysema and chronic bronchitis.

Generic Name

Aminophylline

DrugBank Accession Number

DB01223

Background

Aminophylline is a drug combination that contains theophylline and ethylenediamine in a 2:1 ratio. Once in the body, theophylline is released and acts as a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, adenosine receptor blocker, and histone deacetylase activator. Similar to other theophyllines, aminophylline is indicated for the treatment of lung diseases such as asthma, chronic bronchitis, and COPD. The majority of aminophylline medications are discontinued and the remaining medications on the market are in short supply.

Type

Small Molecule

Groups

Approved

Structure

Similar Structures

Weight: Average: 420.4264
Monoisotopic: 420.198199306
Chemical Formula: C₁₆H₂₄N₁₀O₄

Synonyms

Aminofilina
Aminophyllin
Aminophylline
Aminophyllinum
Theophyline ethylenediamine
Theophylline ethylenediamine

Pharmacology

Indication

For the treatment of bronchospasm due to asthma, emphysema and chronic bronchitis.

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Associated Conditions

Contraindications & Blackbox Warnings

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Pharmacodynamics

Aminophylline is the ethylenediamine salt of theophylline. Theophylline stimulates the CNS, skeletal muscles, and cardiac muscle. It relaxes certain smooth muscles in the bronchi, produces diuresis, and causes an increase in gastric secretion.

Mechanism of action

Aminophylline is the ethylenediamine salt of theophylline. After ingestion, theophylline is released from aminophylline, and theophylline relaxes the smooth muscle of the bronchial airways and pulmonary blood vessels and reduces airway responsiveness to histamine, methacholine, adenosine, and allergen. Theophylline competitively inhibits type III and type IV phosphodiesterase (PDE), the enzyme responsible for breaking down cyclic AMP in smooth muscle cells, possibly resulting in bronchodilation. Theophylline also binds to the adenosine A2B receptor and blocks adenosine mediated bronchoconstriction. In inflammatory states, theophylline activates histone deacetylase to prevent transcription of inflammatory genes that require the acetylation of histones for transcription to begin.

Target	Actions	Organism
AcGMP-inhibited 3',5'-cyclic phosphodiesterase A	inhibitor	Humans
AAdenosine receptor A1	antagonist	Humans
AAdenosine receptor A3	antagonist	Humans
AHistone deacetylase 2	activator	Humans

Absorption

Not Available

Volume of distribution

0.3 to 0.7 L/kg

Protein binding

60%

Metabolism

Not Available

Route of elimination

Not Available

Half-life

7-9 hours

Clearance

0.29 mL/kg/min [postnatal age 3-15 days]
0.64 mL/kg/min [postnatal age 25-57 days]
1.7 mL/kg/min [ 1-4 years]
1.6 mL/kg/min [4-12 years]
0.9 mL/kg/min [13-15 years]
1.4 mL/kg/min [16-17 years]
0.65 mL/kg/min [Adults (16-60 years), non-smoking asthmatics]
0.41 mL/kg/min [Elderly (>60 years). liver, and renal function]
0.33 mL/kg/min [Acute pulmonary edema]
0.54 mL/kg/min [COPD->60 years, stable non-smoker >1 year]
0.48 mL/kg/min [COPD with cor pulmonale]
1.25 mL/kg/min [Cystic fibrosis (14-28 years)]
0.31 mL/kg/min [Liver disease -cholestasis]
0.35 mL/kg/min [cirrhosis]
0.65 mL/kg/min [acute hepatitis]
0.47 mL/kg/min [Sepsis with multi-organ failure]
0.38 mL/kg/min [hypothyroid]
0.8 mL/kg/min [hyperthyroid]

Adverse Effects

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Toxicity

Not Available

Pathways

Not Available

Pharmacogenomic Effects/ADRs

Not Available

Interactions

Drug Interactions

This information should not be interpreted without the help of a healthcare provider. If you believe you are experiencing an interaction, contact a healthcare provider immediately. The absence of an interaction does not necessarily mean no interactions exist.

Drug	Interaction
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1,2-Benzodiazepine	The therapeutic efficacy of 1,2-Benzodiazepine can be decreased when used in combination with Aminophylline.
Abametapir	The serum concentration of Aminophylline can be increased when it is combined with Abametapir.
Abatacept	The metabolism of Aminophylline can be increased when combined with Abatacept.
Abiraterone	The serum concentration of Aminophylline can be increased when it is combined with Abiraterone.
Acalabrutinib	The metabolism of Aminophylline can be decreased when combined with Acalabrutinib.
Acebutolol	The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Acebutolol is combined with Aminophylline.
Acenocoumarol	The metabolism of Acenocoumarol can be decreased when combined with Aminophylline.
Acetaminophen	Aminophylline may increase the hepatotoxic activities of Acetaminophen.
Acetazolamide	The metabolism of Aminophylline can be decreased when combined with Acetazolamide.
Acyclovir	The metabolism of Aminophylline can be decreased when combined with Acyclovir.

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Food Interactions

Administer vitamin supplements. Aminophylline may reduce Vitamin B6 levels as an adverse effect. Consider supplementation.
Avoid excessive or chronic alcohol consumption. Ingesting a large amount of alcohol may reduce aminophylline clearance, therefore increasing its serum concentration.
Exercise caution with grapefruit products. Grapefruit inhibits CYP3A4 metabolism, which may increase the serum concentration of aminophylline.
Exercise caution with St. John's Wort. This herb induces the CYP3A4 metabolism of aminophylline. Therefore it may reduce the serum concentration and effectiveness of aminophylline.
Limit caffeine intake. Excessive caffeine intake with aminophylline may exacerbate caffiene-like side effects such as nausea, nervousness, irritability, insomnia and tremors.
Take with food. This may reduce gastric irritation. Aminophylline absorption is slower when taken with food.

Products

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Product Ingredients

Ingredient	UNII	CAS	InChI Key
Aminophylline dihydrate	C229N9DX94	5897-66-5	FXNJPZOEDHBGEY-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Active Moieties

Name	Kind	UNII	CAS	InChI Key
Theophylline	unknown	0I55128JYK	58-55-9	ZFXYFBGIUFBOJW-UHFFFAOYSA-N

International/Other Brands

Minomal / Somophyllin

Brand Name Prescription Products

Name	Dosage	Strength	Route	Labeller	Marketing Start	Marketing End
Aminophylline	Injection, solution	25 mg/1mL	Intravenous	Hospira, Inc.	2006-11-07	2006-11-07
Aminophylline	Injection, solution	25 mg/1mL	Intravenous	Hospira, Inc.	2006-11-07	2006-11-07
Aminophylline Inj 25mg/ml	Solution	25 mg / mL	Intravenous	Omega Laboratories Ltd	1984-12-31	Not applicable
Aminophylline Inj 50mg/ml	Solution	50 mg / mL	Intravenous	Omega Laboratories Ltd	1984-12-31	Not applicable
Aminophylline Injection 50mg/ml	Solution	50 mg / mL	Intravenous	Hospira Healthcare Ulc	1981-12-31	2012-08-03
Aminophylline Injection USP	Solution	25 mg / mL	Intravenous	Pfizer Canada Ulc	1981-12-31	Not applicable
Aminophylline Tab 0.1gm	Tablet	100 mg / tab	Oral	Lederle Cyanamid Canada Inc.	1951-12-31	2000-08-02
Aminophylline Tab 100mg	Tablet	97.5 mg	Oral	Stanley Pharmaceuticals, A Division Of Vita Health Products Inc.	1957-12-31	2002-07-31
Jaa Aminophylline Tab 100mg	Tablet	100 mg	Oral	Jaapharm Canada Inc.	1993-12-31	2016-08-10
Phyllocontin	Tablet, extended release	225 mg	Oral	Purdue Pharma	1993-12-31	2011-08-04

Generic Prescription Products

Name	Dosage	Strength	Route	Labeller	Marketing Start	Marketing End
Aminophylline	Injection, solution	25 mg/1mL	Intravenous	Medical Purchasing Solutions, Llc	2005-05-10	Not applicable
Aminophylline	Tablet	100 mg/1	Oral	West-Ward Pharmaceuticals Corp	1975-11-26	2015-07-15
Aminophylline	Injection	25 mg/1mL	Intravenous	American Regent	1982-06-15	2008-05-16
Aminophylline	Injection, solution	25 mg/1mL	Intravenous	General Injectables & Vaccines, Inc.	2009-01-01	Not applicable
Aminophylline	Injection, solution	25 mg/1mL	Intravenous	Henry Schein, Inc.	2022-01-08	Not applicable
Aminophylline	Tablet	200 mg/1	Oral	West-Ward Pharmaceuticals Corp	1976-05-28	2015-08-16
Aminophylline	Injection, solution	25 mg/1mL	Intravenous	Cardinal Health	2011-02-11	2018-09-30
Aminophylline	Injection, solution	25 mg/1mL	Intravenous	HF Acquisition Co LLC, DBA HealthFirst	2019-02-10	Not applicable
Aminophylline	Injection, solution	25 mg/1mL	Intravenous	General Injectables & Vaccines	2010-07-01	2011-02-01
Aminophylline	Injection, solution	25 mg/1mL	Intravenous	Hospira, Inc.	2005-02-28	Not applicable

Unapproved/Other Products

Name	Ingredients	Dosage	Route	Labeller	Marketing Start	Marketing End	Region	Image
AMINOCARDOL 10 ML 240 MG 100 AMPUL	Aminophylline (240 mg/10ml)	Injection, solution	Intravenous	NOVARTİS ÜRÜNLERİ	2020-08-14	Not applicable
AMINOCARDOL 240MG/10 ML 3 AMPUL	Aminophylline (240 mg/10ml)	Injection, solution	Intravenous	NOVARTİS ÜRÜNLERİ	2020-08-14	Not applicable

Chemical Identifiers

UNII: 27Y3KJK423
CAS number: 317-34-0
InChI Key: FQPFAHBPWDRTLU-UHFFFAOYSA-N
InChI: InChI=1S/2C7H8N4O2.C2H8N2/c2*1-10-5-4(8-3-9-5)6(12)11(2)7(10)13;3-1-2-4/h2*3H,1-2H3,(H,8,9);1-4H2
IUPAC Name: bis(1,3-dimethyl-2,3,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-purine-2,6-dione); ethane-1,2-diamine
SMILES: NCCN.CN1C2=C(NC=N2)C(=O)N(C)C1=O.CN1C2=C(NC=N2)C(=O)N(C)C1=O

References

General References

AIFA Product Information: Aminomal (aminophylline) for injection or rectal administration [Link]

External Links

Human Metabolome Database: HMDB0015354
KEGG Drug: D00227
PubChem Compound: 9433
PubChem Substance: 46508784
ChemSpider: 9062
RxNav: 689
ChEBI: 2659
ChEMBL: CHEMBL1370561
Therapeutic Targets Database: DAP000613
PharmGKB: PA164781029
Drugs.com: Drugs.com Drug Page
Wikipedia: Aminophylline

MSDS

Download (72.7 KB)

Clinical Trials

Clinical Trials

Phase	Status	Purpose	Conditions	Count
4	Completed	Prevention	Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)	1
4	Completed	Prevention	Patients Being Assessed With Nuclear Stress Testing of the Heart Using the Stress Agent Regadenoson (Lexiscan ®)	1
4	Completed	Prevention	Patients With Severe Chronic Kidney Disease Being Evaluated With Nuclear Stress Testing of the Heart Using the Stress Agent Regadenoson (Lexiscan ®)	1
4	Completed	Treatment	Postdural Puncture Headache	1
4	Not Yet Recruiting	Treatment	Anesthesia therapy	1
4	Recruiting	Treatment	Acute Exacerbation of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease	1
4	Withdrawn	Diagnostic	Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)	1
3	Completed	Treatment	Asthma	1
3	Completed	Treatment	Postdural Puncture Headache	1
3	Recruiting	Treatment	Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)	1

Pharmacoeconomics

Manufacturers

Not Available

Packagers

Amend
C.O. Truxton Inc.
Cardinal Health
Carlisle Laboratories Inc.
Dispensing Solutions
G & W Labs
General Injectables and Vaccines Inc.
Hospira Inc.
Kaiser Foundation Hospital
Lake Erie Medical and Surgical Supply
Major Pharmaceuticals
Murfreesboro Pharmaceutical Nursing Supply
PCA LLC
Pharmedix
Prescript Pharmaceuticals
West-Ward Pharmaceuticals

Dosage Forms

Form	Route	Strength
Solution	Intravenous	240 mg
Solution	Intravenous	250 mg
Suppository	Rectal
Tablet, chewable	Oral
Injection, solution	Intravenous	240 MG/10ML
Injection, solution	Intravenous; Parenteral	240 MG/10ML
Injection, solution	Intravenous
Tablet, coated	Oral
Injection, solution		240 MG/10ML
Injection, solution	Intramuscular	350 mg/2ml
Pill		200 MG
Solution	Intramuscular	350 mg/2ml
Suppository	Rectal	350 MG
Tablet	Oral	600 mg
Tablet, extended release	Oral	600 MG
Injection	Intravenous
Injection	Intravenous	25 mg/1mL
Injection, solution	Intravenous	25 mg/1mL
Solution	Oral	105 mg/5mL
Tablet	Oral
Tablet	Oral	100 mg/1
Tablet	Oral	200 mg/1
Tablet, film coated	Oral
Solution	Intravenous	50 mg / mL
Injection	Intravenous	0.25 g/10ml
Solution	Intravenous	25 mg / mL
Tablet	Oral	100 mg / tab
Tablet	Oral	97.5 mg
Injection	Intravenous	250 mg/10mL
Capsule	Oral	200 mg
Solution	Intravenous
Tablet, extended release	Oral	225 mg
Tablet, extended release	Oral	350 mg
Injection, solution	Intramuscular
Suppository	Rectal	250 mg/1
Suppository	Rectal	500 mg/1
Solution		25 mg/1ml
Tablet	Oral	100 mg
Tablet, coated	Oral	100 mg

Prices

Unit description	Cost	Unit
Aminophylline 250 mg/10 ml vial	0.48USD	ml
Aminophylline 25 mg/ml	0.41USD	ml
Phyllocontin-350 350 mg Sustained-Release Tablet	0.31USD	tablet
Aminophylline 100 mg tablet	0.26USD	tablet
Phyllocontin 225 mg Sustained-Release Tablet	0.24USD	tablet
Aminophylline powder	0.17USD	g
Aminophylline 200 mg tablet	0.15USD	tablet

DrugBank does not sell nor buy drugs. Pricing information is supplied for informational purposes only.

Patents

Not Available

Properties

State

Solid

Experimental Properties

Property	Value	Source
water solubility	2E+005 mg/L	MERCK INDEX (1996)
logP	-3.03	Not Available

Predicted Properties

Property	Value	Source
Water Solubility	22.9 mg/mL	ALOGPS
logP	-0.26	ALOGPS
logP	-0.77	ChemAxon
logS	-0.9	ALOGPS
pKa (Strongest Acidic)	7.82	ChemAxon
pKa (Strongest Basic)	-0.78	ChemAxon
Physiological Charge	0	ChemAxon
Hydrogen Acceptor Count	3	ChemAxon
Hydrogen Donor Count	1	ChemAxon
Polar Surface Area	69.3 Å²	ChemAxon
Rotatable Bond Count	1	ChemAxon
Refractivity	44.93 m³·mol^-1	ChemAxon
Polarizability	16.86 Å³	ChemAxon
Number of Rings	4	ChemAxon
Bioavailability	1	ChemAxon
Rule of Five	Yes	ChemAxon
Ghose Filter	No	ChemAxon
Veber's Rule	No	ChemAxon
MDDR-like Rule	No	ChemAxon

Predicted ADMET Features

Property	Value	Probability
Human Intestinal Absorption	+	0.9778
Blood Brain Barrier	+	0.5908
Caco-2 permeable	-	0.6802
P-glycoprotein substrate	Substrate	0.7341
P-glycoprotein inhibitor I	Non-inhibitor	0.9164
P-glycoprotein inhibitor II	Non-inhibitor	0.9673
Renal organic cation transporter	Non-inhibitor	0.7935
CYP450 2C9 substrate	Non-substrate	0.8073
CYP450 2D6 substrate	Non-substrate	0.8093
CYP450 3A4 substrate	Substrate	0.5482
CYP450 1A2 substrate	Non-inhibitor	0.8726
CYP450 2C9 inhibitor	Non-inhibitor	0.9332
CYP450 2D6 inhibitor	Non-inhibitor	0.9633
CYP450 2C19 inhibitor	Non-inhibitor	0.9184
CYP450 3A4 inhibitor	Non-inhibitor	0.8031
CYP450 inhibitory promiscuity	Low CYP Inhibitory Promiscuity	0.8858
Ames test	Non AMES toxic	0.6724
Carcinogenicity	Non-carcinogens	0.8696
Biodegradation	Not ready biodegradable	0.9149
Rat acute toxicity	2.4979 LD50, mol/kg	Not applicable
hERG inhibition (predictor I)	Weak inhibitor	0.7876
hERG inhibition (predictor II)	Inhibitor	0.6143

ADMET data is predicted using admetSAR, a free tool for evaluating chemical ADMET properties. (23092397)

Spectra

Mass Spec (NIST)

Not Available

Spectra

Spectrum	Spectrum Type	Splash Key
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Positive (Annotated)	Predicted LC-MS/MS	Not Available
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Positive (Annotated)	Predicted LC-MS/MS	Not Available
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Positive (Annotated)	Predicted LC-MS/MS	Not Available
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 10V, Negative (Annotated)	Predicted LC-MS/MS	Not Available
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 20V, Negative (Annotated)	Predicted LC-MS/MS	Not Available
Predicted MS/MS Spectrum - 40V, Negative (Annotated)	Predicted LC-MS/MS	Not Available
LC-MS/MS Spectrum - LC-ESI-qTof , Positive	LC-MS/MS	Not Available
MS/MS Spectrum - , positive	LC-MS/MS	splash10-001i-1900000000-f6d60952fa154f363515

Targets

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Details1. cGMP-inhibited 3',5'-cyclic phosphodiesterase A

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Inhibitor

General Function: Metal ion binding
Specific Function: Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase with a dual-specificity for the second messengers cAMP and cGMP, which are key regulators of many important physiological processes.
Gene Name: PDE3A
Uniprot ID: Q14432
Uniprot Name: cGMP-inhibited 3',5'-cyclic phosphodiesterase A
Molecular Weight: 124978.06 Da

References

Hirota K, Yoshioka H, Kabara S, Koizumi Y, Abe H, Sato T, Matsuki A: Spasmolytic effects of colforsin daropate on serotonin-induced pulmonary hypertension and bronchoconstriction in dogs. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2002 Mar;46(3):297-302. [Article]
Chen X, Ji ZL, Chen YZ: TTD: Therapeutic Target Database. Nucleic Acids Res. 2002 Jan 1;30(1):412-5. [Article]

Details2. Adenosine receptor A1

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Antagonist

General Function: Purine nucleoside binding
Specific Function: Receptor for adenosine. The activity of this receptor is mediated by G proteins which inhibit adenylyl cyclase.
Gene Name: ADORA1
Uniprot ID: P30542
Uniprot Name: Adenosine receptor A1
Molecular Weight: 36511.325 Da

References

Yamamoto S, Nakanishi O, Matsui T, Shinohara N, Kinoshita H, Lambert C, Ishikawa T: Intrathecal adenosine A1 receptor agonist attenuates hyperalgesia without inhibiting spinal glutamate release in the rat. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2003 Apr;23(2):175-85. [Article]
Lerman BB: Response of nonreentrant catecholamine-mediated ventricular tachycardia to endogenous adenosine and acetylcholine. Evidence for myocardial receptor-mediated effects. Circulation. 1993 Feb;87(2):382-90. [Article]

Details3. Adenosine receptor A3

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Antagonist

General Function: G-protein coupled adenosine receptor activity
Specific Function: Receptor for adenosine. The activity of this receptor is mediated by G proteins which inhibits adenylyl cyclase. Possible role in reproduction.
Gene Name: ADORA3
Uniprot ID: P0DMS8
Uniprot Name: Adenosine receptor A3
Molecular Weight: 36184.175 Da

References

Stella L, de Novellis V, Marabese I, Berrino L, Maione S, Filippelli A, Rossi F: The role of A3 adenosine receptors in central regulation of arterial blood pressure. Br J Pharmacol. 1998 Oct;125(3):437-40. [Article]

Details4. Histone deacetylase 2

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Yes
Actions: Activator

General Function: Transcription factor binding
Specific Function: Responsible for the deacetylation of lysine residues on the N-terminal part of the core histones (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4). Histone deacetylation gives a tag for epigenetic repression and plays an impo...
Gene Name: HDAC2
Uniprot ID: Q92769
Uniprot Name: Histone deacetylase 2
Molecular Weight: 55363.855 Da

References

Ito K, Lim S, Caramori G, Cosio B, Chung KF, Adcock IM, Barnes PJ: A molecular mechanism of action of theophylline: Induction of histone deacetylase activity to decrease inflammatory gene expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Jun 25;99(13):8921-6. Epub 2002 Jun 17. [Article]

Enzymes

Details1. Cytochrome P450 2E1

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Unknown
Actions: Substrate

General Function: Steroid hydroxylase activity
Specific Function: Metabolizes several precarcinogens, drugs, and solvents to reactive metabolites. Inactivates a number of drugs and xenobiotics and also bioactivates many xenobiotic substrates to their hepatotoxic ...
Gene Name: CYP2E1
Uniprot ID: P05181
Uniprot Name: Cytochrome P450 2E1
Molecular Weight: 56848.42 Da

References

Tjia JF, Colbert J, Back DJ: Theophylline metabolism in human liver microsomes: inhibition studies. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1996 Mar;276(3):912-7. [Article]

Details2. Cytochrome P450 3A4

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Unknown
Actions: Substrate

General Function: Vitamin d3 25-hydroxylase activity
Specific Function: Cytochromes P450 are a group of heme-thiolate monooxygenases. In liver microsomes, this enzyme is involved in an NADPH-dependent electron transport pathway. It performs a variety of oxidation react...
Gene Name: CYP3A4
Uniprot ID: P08684
Uniprot Name: Cytochrome P450 3A4
Molecular Weight: 57342.67 Da

References

Tjia JF, Colbert J, Back DJ: Theophylline metabolism in human liver microsomes: inhibition studies. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1996 Mar;276(3):912-7. [Article]

Details3. Cytochrome P450 1A2

Kind: Protein
Organism: Humans
Pharmacological action: Unknown
Actions: Substrate

General Function: Oxidoreductase activity, acting on paired donors, with incorporation or reduction of molecular oxygen, reduced flavin or flavoprotein as one donor, and incorporation of one atom of oxygen
Specific Function: Cytochromes P450 are a group of heme-thiolate monooxygenases. In liver microsomes, this enzyme is involved in an NADPH-dependent electron transport pathway. It oxidizes a variety of structurally un...
Gene Name: CYP1A2
Uniprot ID: P05177
Uniprot Name: Cytochrome P450 1A2
Molecular Weight: 58293.76 Da

References

Macias WL, Bergstrom RF, Cerimele BJ, Kassahun K, Tatum DE, Callaghan JT: Lack of effect of olanzapine on the pharmacokinetics of a single aminophylline dose in healthy men. Pharmacotherapy. 1998 Nov-Dec;18(6):1237-48. [Article]
CYP1A2, CTEP document, NIH [File]
Cytochrome P450 Drug Interactions [File]

Drug created at June 13, 2005 13:24 / Updated at October 06, 2022 03:22

Aminophylline

Identification

Structure for Aminophylline (DB01223)

Pharmacology

Interactions

Products

Categories

Chemical Identifiers

References

Clinical Trials

Pharmacoeconomics

Properties

Spectra

Targets

References

References

References

References

Enzymes

References

References

References